How Did Jefferson Reduce The Size Of The Federal Gov?

U.Due south. presidential assistants from 1801 to 1809



Presidency of Thomas Jefferson March four, 1801 – March four, 1809
Cabinet	See list
Political party	Democratic-Republican
Election	1800 1804
Seat	White House
← John Adams James Madison →
Dorsett seal

Thomas Jefferson served as the president of the Us from March 4, 1801, to March 4, 1809. Jefferson assumed the office after defeating incumbent John Adams in the 1800 presidential election. The ballot was a political realignment in which the Democratic-Republican Political party swept the Federalist Party out of power, ushering in a generation of Jeffersonian Republican authorization in American politics. After serving two terms, Jefferson was succeeded past Secretarial assistant of Country James Madison, also of the Democratic-Republican Party.

Jefferson took office adamant to roll dorsum the Federalist programme of the 1790s. His administration reduced taxes, authorities spending, and the national debt, and repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts. In foreign affairs, the major developments were the acquisition of the gigantic Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803, an embargo against trade with both Great Britain and France, and worsening relations with Britain as the United states of america tried to remain neutral in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars that engulfed Europe. He established a military academy, used the Navy to protect merchant ships from Barbary pirates in North Africa, and adult a plan to protect U.S. ports from strange invasion by the use of small gunboats (a plan that proved useless when state of war came in 1812). He likewise authorized the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory and the Pacific Northwest.

During his second term, Jefferson'due south attending was focused on the trial of so former Vice President Aaron Burr for treason, which resulted in an acquittal, and on the effect of slavery, specifically the importation of slaves from abroad. In 1806, he denounced the international slave trade every bit a "violation of human rights" and called upon Congress to criminalize information technology. Congress responded by approving the Human activity Prohibiting Importation of Slaves the following year. Ascent tensions betwixt the United States and Britain dominated the final years of Jefferson'southward second term, as the Regal Navy began impressing sailors from American ships and attacking American shipping. Jefferson rejected war and instead used economic threats and embargoes that ultimately hurt the U.Due south. more than United kingdom. The disputes with Britain continued afterwards Jefferson left office, eventually leading to the War of 1812.

Despite the economic and political troubles acquired by naval tensions with Great britain, Jefferson was succeeded by his preferred successor in the class of James Madison. His legacy remained highly influential until the American Civil War, but his reputation has ebbed and flowed since then. Nonetheless, in surveys of academic historians and political scientists, Jefferson is consistently ranked as i of the nation's most esteemed presidents.

Ballot of 1800 [edit]

1800 Electoral College Vote results by state explicitly indicating the number of votes received by peak two candidates in each

Jefferson ran for president in the 1796 election as a Democratic-Republican, just finished second in the balloter vote to Federalist John Adams; under the laws then in place, Jefferson's second-place end made him the Vice President of the Usa.^[one] Jefferson strongly opposed the Federalist program, including the Conflicting and Sedition Acts, and the nation became increasingly polarized.^[2] Jefferson and Adams were in one case again the major presidential candidates of their respective parties in the 1800 presidential ballot, and Aaron Burr was the Autonomous-Republican Party'southward vice presidential nominees.^[iii] Adams'southward campaign was weakened by unpopular taxes and vicious Federalist infighting over his deportment in the Quasi-War.^[4] The Autonomous-Republicans accused the Federalists of being hugger-mugger monarchists, while the Federalists charged that Jefferson was a godless libertine in thrall to the French.^[5]

Under the election system in place at the time, the members of the Electoral College were permitted to vote for two names for president; whatever tie would exist decided in a contingent election in the Us Business firm of Representatives. Jefferson and Burr each received 73 electoral votes, while Adams finished in third place with 65 votes. The House of Representatives, still controlled past the Federalists, held a contingent election in February 1801 to decide whether Jefferson or Burr would accede to the presidency. Though some Federalists preferred Burr, Federalist leader Alexander Hamilton strongly preferred Jefferson. On the thirty-6th election of the contingent election, plenty Federalist congressmen abstained from the vote to let Jefferson to win the presidency.^[6] Jefferson regarded his victory as "America'southward Second Revolution," and he hoped to transform the land by limiting regime and weakening the power of elites.^[vii]

Transition [edit]

Before Jefferson could take office, there was a transition period in which he was the president-elect following his victory in the contingent election.^[8] The transition between Adams and Jefferson represented the first transfer of the presidency between two different political parties in United States history,^a and set the precedent for all subsequent inter-party transitions.^[9] It was the showtime time in United states of america history the a president handed over the presidency to a political opponent.^[8]

Different the presidential transitions of today, transitions at this time were informal affairs, with relatively minimal activity required of the president-elect.^[10]

During the transition, Jefferson picked members of his Cabinet.^[ten] He also selected individuals less principal positions of his administration, such equally Meriwether Lewis to serve as his personal secretary.^[x]

Before leaving office, the lame duck, to the outrage of the Democratic-Republicans, at the final minute Adams appointed many federal judges (mostly belonging to the Federalist Political party) to fill positions created by the Judiciary Act of 1801. These would be dubbed "midnight judges".^[11] Jefferson denounced this activeness.^[12]

Inauguration [edit]

Jefferson's first inauguration, on March 4, 1801, was the first to exist held in the nation's new capital, Washington, D.C.^[xiii] That morning an artillery visitor on Capitol Hill had fired shots to welcome the daybreak, and in a showtime for a newspaper, Jefferson gave a re-create of his speech to the National Intelligencer for information technology to be published and available right after commitment.^[xiv] He delivered a 1721-give-and-take spoken communication in the U.s.a. Capitol'due south Senate Chamber. He was not a strong speaker, and the audience could barely catch his words, which called for national unity. The speech was widely reprinted and celebrated by Autonomous-Republicans across the country as a articulate statement of the party'south principles.^[fifteen] The presidential adjuration of office was administered by Chief Justice John Marshall.^[13] Outgoing President Adams had left the upper-case letter earlier that twenty-four hour period, and did not nourish the anniversary.^[16]

Administration [edit]

Cabinet [edit]

The Jefferson Chiffonier
Office	Name	Term

President	Thomas Jefferson	1801–1809

Vice President	Aaron Burr	1801–1805
Vice President
George Clinton	1805–1809

Secretary of Country	James Madison	1801–1809

Secretary of the Treasury	Samuel Dexter	1801
Secretary of the Treasury
Albert Gallatin	1801–1809

Secretary of War	Henry Dearborn	1801–1809

Chaser General	Levi Lincoln Sr.	1801–1805

	John Breckinridge	1805–1806
Caesar Augustus Rodney	1807–1809

Secretarial assistant of the Navy	Benjamin Stoddert	1801
Secretarial assistant of the Navy
Robert Smith	1801–1809

By July 1801, Jefferson had assembled his chiffonier, which consisted of Secretary of Land James Madison, Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, Secretary of War Henry Dearborn, Attorney Full general Levi Lincoln Sr., and Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith. Afterward his decision to pursue the presidency in the contingent election, Burr was excluded from whatever role in the Jefferson administration. Jefferson sought to brand collective decisions with his chiffonier, and each member's opinion was elicited earlier Jefferson fabricated major decisions.^[17] Gallatin and Madison were particularly influential within Jefferson's cabinet; they held the two most important cabinet positions and served as Jefferson's cardinal lieutenants.^[xviii]

Patronage and the Federalists [edit]

When Adams took office in 1797, he carried many of approachable President George Washington'southward supporters over into his new administration. As a result, there was picayune change in the federal government during the transition betwixt Washington and Adams, the start presidential transition in U.S. history. With Jefferson's ballot in 1800, there was a transfer of power between parties, not simply a transition betwixt presidents. As president, Jefferson had the ability of appointment to fill many regime positions that had long been held by Federalists. Jefferson resisted the calls of his fellow Democratic-Republicans to remove all Federalists from their appointed positions, but he felt that it was his right to supervene upon the top government officials, including the cabinet. He also replaced any lower-ranking Federalist appointees who engaged in misconduct or partisan behavior. Jefferson'southward refusal to call for a complete replacement of federal appointees under a "spoils organization" was followed past his successors until the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828.^[19]

Judiciary [edit]

In the last days of his presidency, Adams had appointed numerous federal judges to fill up positions created by the Judiciary Act of 1801. Democratic-Republicans were outraged past the appointment of these "midnight judges," almost all of whom were Federalists.^[11] Jefferson and his allies sought to reverse the Judiciary Act of 1801, partly because they did non believe the new judicial positions were necessary, and partly to weaken Federalist influence on the courts. Federalists vehemently opposed this plan, arguing that Congress did non have the power to abolish judicial positions that were occupied. Despite these objections, the Democratic-Republicans passed the Judiciary Act of 1802, which largely restored the judicial structure that had prevailed prior to the Judiciary Human activity of 1801.^[20] The Jefferson assistants likewise refused to deliver judicial commissions to some Adams appointees who had won Senate confirmation but had not nonetheless formally taken office. One such appointee, William Marbury, sued Secretary of State Madison to compel him to deliver the judicial commissions. In the 1803 Supreme Courtroom case of Marbury v. Madison, the court ruled against Marbury, but also established the precedent of judicial review, thereby strengthening the judicial co-operative.^[20]

Still unhappy with Federalist ability on the demote even after the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1802, the Autonomous-Republicans impeached commune court Guess John Pickering and Supreme Courtroom Justice Samuel Hunt. Federalist congressmen strongly opposed both impeachments, criticizing them as attacks on judicial independence. Pickering, who often presided over cases while drunk, was convicted by the Senate in 1804. However, the impeachment proceedings of Chase proved more difficult. While serving on the Supreme Court, Hunt had frequently expressed his skepticism of democracy, predicting that the nation would "sink into mobocracy," merely he had non shown himself to exist incompetent in the aforementioned way that Pickering had. Several Democratic-Republican senators joined the Federalists in opposing Chase's removal, and Chase would remain on the court until his expiry in 1811. Though Federalists would never regain the political power they had held during the 1790s, the Marshall Courtroom continued to reflect Federalist ideals until the 1830s.^[21]

Jefferson appointed three people to the Supreme Court during his presidency. The first vacancy of Jefferson's presidency arose due to the resignation of Alfred Moore. Determined to appoint a Democratic-Republican from a land unrepresented on the Court, Jefferson selected William Johnson, a immature attorney who had previously served as an appellate gauge in S Carolina. Subsequently the death of William Paterson in 1806, Jefferson appointed Henry Brockholst Livingston, a justice of the New York Supreme Court. After Congress added another seat to the Supreme Courtroom with the Seventh Circuit Act of 1807, Jefferson asked individual members of Congress for their recommendations on filling the vacancy. Though Representative George W. Campbell of Tennessee emerged as the most popular choice in Congress, Jefferson was unwilling to engage a sitting member of Congress. Jefferson instead appointed Thomas Todd, some other private pop among members of Congress, and who served as the chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals. Jefferson hoped that his appointments would weaken Main Justice Marshall'south influence on the Court, just, with the partial exception of Johnson, his Supreme Courtroom appointments tended to back up Marshall's decisions.^[22] Jefferson also appointed vii Us circuit court judges and nine The states district court judges.

Domestic diplomacy [edit]

Jeffersonian commonwealth [edit]

After the American Revolution, many Federalists hoped that society would remain largely as information technology had been during the colonial era, only Jefferson wanted to upend the social order.^[23] He advocated a philosophy that historians would afterwards call Jeffersonian democracy, which was marked by his belief in agrarianism and strict limits on the national government. In a earth in which few believed in democracy or egalitarianism, Jefferson's conventionalities in political equality stood out from many of the other Founding Fathers of the United States, who continued to believe that the rich and powerful should pb gild.^[24] Under pressure from Jeffersonian Republicans, states achieved greater suffrage by eliminating property requirements. Expanding suffrage and the mobilization of ordinary people ensured that individuals outside of the aristocracy class had the opportunity to become government officials, especially in the North.^[25] Prior to the 1790s, campaigning was considered an interference on each denizen's right to think and vote independently. Without competition for role, voter turnouts were often low, sometimes fewer than 5 percent of eligible men.^[26] With the rise of the ii-party system, many regions saw voter participation ascension to approximately 20 per centum in the 1790s and to lxxx pct during Jefferson'due south presidency. Wood writes, "by the standards of the early nineteenth century America possessed the virtually popular electoral politics in the world."^[27]

The egalitarianism of the age extended beyond voting rights, as the exercise of indentured servitude declined and traditional hierarchies in employment and education were challenged.^[28] In a reflection of his own belief in egalitarianism, Jefferson broke with many of the precedents ready by Adams and Washington. Jefferson accustomed visitors without regard to social status, discontinued the practice of delivering speeches to Congress in person, and enforced a less formal protocol at White House events.^[29]

In reaction to the expansion of the franchise, even Federalists began to prefer partisan techniques, such equally party arrangement, newspapers, and the establishment of auxiliary societies.^[30] The Federalists peacefully accepted the transfer of power to the Democratic-Republicans in 1800, just most party leaders hoped that it would be simply a temporary anomaly. Many Federalists continued to serve in country or local office, though prominent Federalists like John Jay and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney retired from public life. Reflecting the fears of other aggressive immature Federalists, John Quincy Adams wrote that the Federalist Party had been "completely and irrevocably abandoned....it never can and never will be revived."^[31] Equally Jefferson's presidency continued, Adams's prediction proved accurate, and the Federalists struggled to compete exterior of New England.^[32]

Fiscal policy [edit]

Much of Jefferson's early calendar focused on undoing the Federalist program of the 1790s. Upon taking office, he repealed the remaining provisions of the Alien and Sedition Acts and pardoned all ten individuals who had been prosecuted nether the acts.^[33] He likewise began dismantling Hamilton's financial organisation with help from Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin.^[34] Jefferson'south assistants eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes subsequently closing "unnecessary offices" and cut "useless establishments and expenses".^[35] ^[36] After the repeal of these taxes, over ninety per centum of federal revenue came from import duties.^[37] Despite Jefferson's earlier opposition to the national bank, Gallatin persuaded Jefferson to retain the Starting time Depository financial institution of the United States.^[38] With the repeal of the Federalist program, many Americans had trivial contact with the federal government, with the exception of the mail.^[39]

Jefferson's ultimate goal was to abolish the national debt, which he believed to be inherently unsafe and immoral.^[37] Though Gallatin and Jefferson did not find every bit much Federalist governmental waste material every bit they had expected, their fiscal cuts and the beneficial economic conditions that persisted for much of Jefferson's presidency allowed them to run budget surpluses.^[40] Jefferson shrank the army and the navy, deeming them largely unnecessary in peacetime.^[41] He transformed the navy into a fleet consisting of cheap gunboats used only for defense, with the idea that they would not provoke foreign hostilities.^[35] His administration discharged numerous soldiers, leaving the ground forces with 3,350 officers and enlisted men.^[37] At the finish of his two terms, Jefferson had lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 one thousand thousand.^[42] In 1806, believing that the land would soon abolish its national debt, Jefferson proposed enlarging the regular army and passing a ramble subpoena to explicitly allow Congress to spend funds on internal improvements and education, but these proposals were not acted on by Congress.^[43] That same twelvemonth, Congress authorized the construction of the National Road, a route designed to connect the East Coast to St. Louis, although construction on the road did not brainstorm until 1811.^[44]

Yazoo controversy [edit]

In the early 1800s, much of the American frontier was subject to the competing claims of settlers, land speculators, and Native Americans. The Yazoo lands of western Georgia were no exception, and they emerged every bit a point of major tension during Jefferson'due south administration. In what became known as the Yazoo land scandal, Georgia had engaged in a massive real manor fraud by selling large tracts of Yazoo land earlier passing a law retroactively invalidating the grants. With the Compact of 1802, the federal authorities purchased western Georgia (now the states of Alabama and Mississippi), agreed to seek to extinguish all Native American claims in the region, and also agreed to settle all claims against the land from those who had been defrauded in the scandal.^[45] In 1804, Jefferson sought to compensate those defrauded in the Yazoo state scandal by giving them some of the lands acquired in the compact, merely Congressman John Randolph successfully mobilized opposition to the proposal, castigating it as a giveaway to land speculators. The incident marked the showtime of a factionalism within the Democratic-Republican Political party that would prove problematic for Jefferson and his successors, every bit Randolph's "tertium quids" freely criticized presidents of their own party.^[46] Controversy over the Yazoo lands would continue until 1814, when Congress finally agreed to compensate the claimants.^[47]

Lewis and Clark and other expeditions [edit]

Fifty-fifty earlier the 1803 purchase of the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson had begun planning for an trek to the lands w of the Mississippi River.^[48] Jefferson considered it important for the United states of america to constitute a claim of "discovery" to Oregon State by documenting and establishing an American presence there before Europeans could establish potent claims.^[49] Jefferson also hoped the expedition would find the long-sought-for Northwest Passage to the Pacific Ocean, which would greatly promote commerce and trade for the country.^[50] In 1804, he appointed his personal secretary Meriwether Lewis, forth with William Clark, as the leaders of a western expedition, dubbing information technology the Corps of Discovery.^[51] ^[52] Jefferson chose Lewis to lead the expedition rather than someone with only the best scientific credentials because of Lewis' military experience in the woods and "familiarity with the Indian manners and grapheme." Jefferson possessed the largest collection of books in the world on the subject of the geography and natural history of the Northward American continent, and before the trek he tutored Lewis in the sciences of mapping, botany, natural history, mineralogy, astronomy, and navigation.^[53]

Detailed map drawn by Clark showing road taken by the expedition from the Missouri River to Pacific Ocean depicting rivers, mountains and locations of Indian tribes.

In May 1804, the Corps of Discovery, consisting of about twoscore men, departed from St. Louis and traveled up the Missouri River.^[54] Guided past Sacagawea and diverse Native American tribes forth the way, the expedition, traveling on the Columbia River, reached the Pacific Ocean by November 1805. Later on the winter thaw the expedition began their return trip on March 22, 1806, and returned to St. Louis on September 23 that yr, calculation a wealth of scientific and geographical knowledge of the vast territory, forth with knowledge of the many Indian tribes.^[55] Two months after the expedition's end, Jefferson made his first public argument to Congress giving a one sentence summary virtually its success before asserting the justification for the expenses involved.^[50] The American Philosophical Order ultimately became the repository for many of the expedition's findings, including seeds, fossils, plant, and other specimens.^[56] In 1808, businessman John Jacob Astor established a transcontinental fur trading company, and in 1811 his company established Fort Astoria, the first American settlement on the Pacific Coast.^[57]

In addition to the Corps of Discovery, Jefferson organized other western exploration expeditions, some of which traveled through Spanish territory.^[58] William Dunbar and George Hunter led an expedition on the Ouachita River, Thomas Freeman and Peter Custis led the Red River Trek, and Zebulon Pike led the Superhighway Expedition into the Rocky Mountains and the Southwest.^[59] All of the exploration expeditions sent out under Jefferson's presidency produced valuable information about the American borderland.^[59]

National military machine university [edit]

Jefferson strongly felt the demand for a national military university that could produce a competent officeholder engineering science corps that would non have to rely on foreign sources for top grade engineers.^[threescore] An academy would too help to supervene upon many of the Federalist officers who Jefferson dismissed when he took role.^[61] Jefferson signed the Military Peace Establishment Act on March 16, 1802, thus founding the Us War machine Academy at West Betoken. The Deed documented in 29 sections a new set of laws and limits for the military.^[62]

Twelfth Amendment [edit]

In reaction to the Electoral Higher tie between Jefferson and Burr in 1800, Congress approved an amendment to the Constitution providing a new procedure for electing the president and vice president, and submitted it to the states for ratification in Dec 1803. The Twelfth Amendment was ratified past the requisite number of states (then thirteen) to become part of the Constitution in June 1804.^[63]

Access of Ohio [edit]

1 new country, Ohio, was admitted to the Wedlock while Jefferson was in function. The exact date upon which Ohio became a state is unclear. On April 30, 1802, the 7th Congress had passed an act "authorizing the inhabitants of Ohio to grade a Constitution and state government, and admission of Ohio into the Union." On February 19, 1803, the same Congress passed an human activity "providing for the execution of the laws of the United States in the State of Ohio." Neither act, however, set a formal date of statehood. An official statehood date for Ohio was not set up until 1953, when the 83rd Congress passed a joint resolution "for admitting the State of Ohio into the Spousal relationship", which designated March 1, 1803, as that date.^[64] Information technology was the first state created from the Northwest Territory.

Foreign diplomacy [edit]

Barbary War [edit]

The Barbary Coast of North Africa 1806. The map left is Morocco at Gibraltar, the centre map is Tunis; right, Tripoli stretches east

For decades prior to Jefferson's accession to office, the Barbary Coast pirates of North Africa had been capturing American merchant ships, pillaging valuable cargoes and enslaving crew members, demanding huge ransoms for their release.^[65] Before independence, American merchant ships were protected from the Barbary pirates by the naval and diplomatic influence of U.k., only that protection came to end after the colonies won their independence.^[66] In 1794, in reaction to the attacks, Congress had passed a law to authorize the payment of tribute to the Barbary States. At the same time, Congress passed the Naval Human action of 1794, which initiated construction on six frigates that became the foundation of the Usa Navy. By the stop of the 1790s, the United States had ended treaties with all of the Barbary States, but weeks earlier Jefferson took office Tripoli began attacking American merchant ships in an attempt to extract further tribute.^[67]

Jefferson was reluctant to become involved in any kind of international conflict, but he believed that force would best deter the Barbary States from enervating farther tribute. He ordered the U.S. Navy into the Mediterranean Sea to defend confronting the Barbary Pirates, beginning the First Barbary State of war. The administration's initial efforts were largely ineffective, and in 1803 the frigate USSPhiladelphia was captured by Tripoli. In Feb 1804, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a successful raid on Tripoli'south harbor that burned the Philadelphia, making Decatur a national hero.^[68] Jefferson and the young American navy forced Tunis and Algiers into breaking their alliance with Tripoli which ultimately moved it out of the war. Jefferson also ordered five separate naval bombardments of Tripoli, which restored peace in the Mediterranean for a while,^[69] although Jefferson continued to pay the remaining Barbary States until the terminate of his presidency.^[70]

Louisiana Purchase [edit]

The 1803 Louisiana Purchase totaled 827,987 square miles (ii,144,480 square kilometers), doubling the size of the United States.

Jefferson believed that western expansion played an important role in furthering his vision of a republic of yeoman farmers. By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled every bit far west every bit the Mississippi River, though vast pockets of land remained vacant or inhabited only by Native Americans.^[71] Many in the Usa, especially those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of Louisiana.^[72] Given Spain's sparse presence in Louisiana, Jefferson believed that information technology was just a affair of time until Louisiana fell to either Uk or the The states.^[73] U.Due south. expansionary hopes were temporarily dashed when Napoleon convinced Spain to transfer the province to France in the 1801 Treaty of Aranjuez.^[72] Though French pressure level played a role in the determination of the treaty, the Spanish also believed that French command of Louisiana would assist protect New Spain from American expansion.^[73]

Napoleon's dreams of a re-established French colonial empire in North America threatened to reignite the tensions of the recently concluded Quasi-War.^[72] He initially planned to re-establish a French empire in the Americas centered around New Orleans and Saint-Domingue, a sugar-producing Caribbean area island in the midst of a slave revolution. 1 army was sent to Saint-Domingue, and a second regular army began preparing to travel to New Orleans. After French forces in Saint-Domingue were defeated by the rebels, Napoleon gave upwards on his plans for an empire in the Western Hemisphere.^[74] In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched James Monroe to French republic to join ambassador Robert Livingston in purchasing New Orleans, East Florida, and West Florida from French republic.^[75] To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million.^[76] The Americans likewise pressed for the acquisition of the Floridas, but under the terms of the Treaty of Aranjuez, Spain retained control of both of those territories. On April thirty, the ii delegations agreed to the terms of the Louisiana Buy, and Napoleon gave his approval the following day.^[77]

After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding.^[78] The purchase, concluded in December 1803, marked the end of French ambitions in North America and ensured American control of the Mississippi River.^[79] The Louisiana Purchase about doubled the size of the Us, and Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to French republic.^[80] Though the Louisiana Buy was widely popular, some Federalists criticized information technology; Congressman Fisher Ames wrote, "We are to give coin of which we have too petty for land of which we already have too much."^[81]

Burr conspiracy [edit]

Having been dropped from the 1804 Democratic-Republican ticket, Burr ran for the position of Governor of New York in an Apr 1804 election, and was defeated. Federalist Party leader Alexander Hamilton was a central factor in Burr'due south defeat, having fabricated draconian remarks regarding Burr. Believing that his honour was offended, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel.^[83] On July eleven, 1804, Burr mortally wounded Hamilton in a duel at Weehawken, New Jersey. Burr was indicted for Hamilton's murder in New York and New Jersey causing him to abscond to Georgia, although he remained President of the Senate during Supreme Courtroom Justice Samuel Chase's impeachment trial. The ii Burr indictments were "quietly immune to die".

Later Aaron Burr was disgraced in the duel of 1804 and his ain presidential ambitions were concluded, he was reported by the British ambassador as wanting to "effect a separation of the western office of the U.s.a. [at the Appalachian Mountains]". Jefferson believed that to be then by November 1806, considering Burr had been rumored to be variously plotting with some western states to secede for an independent empire, or to heighten a filibuster to conquer Mexico. At the very least, there were reports of Burr's recruiting men, stocking arms, and building boats. New Orleans seemed especially vulnerable, but at some point, the American general there, James Wilkinson, a double agent for the Castilian, decided to plow on Burr. Jefferson issued a proclamation warning that there were U.Southward. citizens illegally plotting to take over Spanish holdings. Though Burr was nationally discredited, Jefferson feared for the very Union. In a study to Congress Jan 1807, Jefferson alleged Burr'southward guilt "placed beyond question". Past March 1807, Burr was arrested in New Orleans and placed on trial for treason in Richmond, Virginia, with Master Justice John Marshall presiding. On June 13, Jefferson was subpoenaed by Burr to release documents that favored Burr's defense.^[84] Jefferson stated he had no loyalty to Burr and but released a few documents Burr had requested having invoked executive privilege.^[84] Jefferson refused to announced at Burr's trial.^[84] The weak government case led to Burr's acquittal, but with his reputation ruined he was never able to mount some other adventure.^[85] Burr later died on his Staten Island residence in October 1836.^[86]

Florida and Haiti [edit]

The Prairie Dog is an anti-Jefferson satire, relating to Jefferson'south covert negotiations for the purchase of Westward Florida from Kingdom of spain in 1804.

After early 1802, when he learned that Napoleon intended to regain a foothold in Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, Jefferson proclaimed neutrality in relation to the Haitian Revolution. The U.Southward. allowed war contraband to "continue to menstruum to the blacks through usual U.S. merchant channels and the assistants would reject all French requests for help, credits, or loans."^[87] The "geopolitical and commercial implications" of Napoleon's plans outweighed Jefferson's fears of a slave-led nation.^[88] After the rebels in Saint-Domingue proclaimed independence from France in the new republic of Haiti in 1804, Jefferson refused to recognize Haiti as the second independent democracy in the Americas.^[89] In part he hoped to win Napoleon'southward support over the acquisition of Florida.^[ninety] American slaveholders had been frightened and horrified past the slave massacres of the planter form during the rebellion and after, and a southern-dominated Congress was "hostile to Haiti."^[91] They feared its success would encourage slave revolt in the American South. Historian Tim Matthewson notes that Jefferson "acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defence of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad."^[92] According to the historian George Herring, "the Florida diplomacy reveals him [Jefferson] at his worst. His lust for country trumped his business for principle."^[93]

Jefferson's non-recognition of Haiti did piffling to advance his goal of acquiring E Florida and West Florida, which remained nether the control of Spain. Jefferson argued that the Louisiana Purchase had extended as far west as the Rio Grande, and had included Due west Florida equally far due east every bit the Perdido River. He hoped to use that claim, along with French force per unit area, to force Kingdom of spain to sell both W Florida and East Florida. In 1806, he won congressional approval of a $2 one thousand thousand cribbing to obtain the Floridas; eager expansionists also contemplated authorizing the president to acquire Canada, by force if necessary.^[94] In this case, different that of the Louisiana Territory, the dynamics of European politics worked against Jefferson. Napoleon had played Washington against Madrid to see what he could go, but by 1805 Spain was his ally. Spain had no desire to cede Florida, which was part of its leverage against an expanding United States. Revelations of the ransom which Jefferson offered to France over the thing provoked outrage and weakened Jefferson's hand, and he afterwards gave upward on Florida.^[95]

Native American relations [edit]

In keeping with his Enlightenment thinking, President Jefferson adopted an assimilation policy towards American Indians known as his "civilization program" which included securing peaceful U.South.–Indian treaty alliances and encouraging agriculture. Jefferson advocated that Indian tribes should make federal purchases by credit property their lands as collateral for repayment. Various tribes accepted Jefferson'south policies, including the Shawnees led by Black Hoof and the Creek. Still, Jefferson dreamed of a transcontinental nation, and he became increasingly skeptical of assimilation efforts. As his presidency continued, Jefferson prioritized white settlement of the western territories over peaceful assimilation.^[96]

When Jefferson assumed power, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his blood brother Tenskwatawa were leading raids against American settlements in the Ohio Valley, with munitions provided by British traders in Canada. Attempting to class a confederation of Indian people in the Northwest Territory, the two brothers would be a continual source of irritation to westward settlers. The Indian Nations followed Tenskwatawa who had a vision of purifying his society by expelling American settlers, the "children of the Evil Spirit".^[97] The success of the Indians gave Britain hope that information technology could create an Indian satellite nation in parts of the American territory.^[98] The raids became a major cause of the afterward War of 1812.^[99]

Slave merchandise [edit]

In the 1790s, many anti-slavery leaders had come to believe that the institution of slavery would become extinct in the United States in the foreseeable future. These hopes lay in part on the enthusiasm for the abolition of slavery in the Northward, and in the refuse of the importation of slaves throughout the Southward. The Constitution had included a provision preventing Congress from enacting a law banning the importation of slaves until 1808.^[100] In the years before Jefferson took role, the growing fear of slave rebellions led to diminished enthusiasm in the South for the abolition of slavery, and many states began to enact Black Codes designed to restrict the behavior of free blacks.^[101] During his presidential term, Jefferson was disappointed that the younger generation was making no move to abolish slavery; he largely avoided the result until 1806. He did succeed in disarming Congress to cake the foreign importation of slaves into the newly purchased Louisiana Territory.^[102]

Seeing that in 1808 the 20-year constitutional ban on ending the international slave trade would expire, in December 1806 in his presidential message to Congress, he called for a law to ban information technology. He denounced the merchandise every bit "violations of homo rights which have been so long continued on the unoffending inhabitants of Africa, in which the morality, the reputation, and the best interests of our country have long been eager to proscribe." Jefferson signed the new law and the international merchandise became illegal in January 1808. The legal trade had averaged 14,000 slaves a year; illegal smuggling at the rate of about k slaves a year continued for decades.^[103] "The two major achievements of Jefferson'south presidency were the Louisiana Purchase and the abolition of the slave trade," according to historian John Chester Miller.^[104]

Relations with European Powers and the Embargo Human action [edit]

American trade boomed subsequently the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in the early on 1790s, in large part because American shipping was allowed to act every bit neutral carriers with European powers.^[105] Though the British sought to restrict trade with the French, they had largely tolerated U.Southward. merchandise with mainland France and French colonies after the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794.^[106] Jefferson favored a policy of neutrality in the European wars, and was strongly committed to the principle of liberty of navigation for neutral vessels, including American ships.^[107] Early on in his tenure, Jefferson was able to maintain cordial relations with both France and Britain, but relations with U.k. deteriorated after 1805.^[108] Needing sailors, the British Imperial Navy seized hundreds of American ships and impressed 6,000 sailors from them, angering Americans.^[109] The British began to enforce a occludent of Europe, catastrophe their policy of tolerance towards American aircraft. Though the British returned many seized American goods that had non been intended for French ports, the British occludent desperately afflicted American commerce and provoked immense anger throughout the nation. Aside from commercial concerns, Americans were outraged past what they saw equally an assail on national honor. In response to the attacks, Jefferson recommended an expansion of the navy, and Congress passed the Non-importation Deed, which restricted many, merely non all, British imports.^[110]

To restore peaceful relations with U.k., Monroe negotiated the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty, which would have represented an extension of the Jay Treaty.^[111] Jefferson had never favored the Jay Treaty, which had prevented the Usa from implementing economic sanctions on U.k., and he rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty. Tensions with Britain heightened due to the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, a June 1807 naval confrontation betwixt an American send and a British ship that ended in the expiry or impressment of several American sailors. Beginning with Napoleon's Dec 1807 Milan Decree, the French began to seize ships trading with the British, leaving American shipping vulnerable to attacks by both of the major naval powers.^[112] In response to attacks on American shipping, Congress passed the Embargo Act in 1807, which was designed to forcefulness United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and France into respecting U.S. neutrality past cutting off all American shipping to Britain or France. Almost immediately the Americans began to turn to smuggling in guild to send goods to Europe.^[113] Defying his ain limited regime principles, Jefferson used the military to enforce the embargo. Imports and exports fell immensely, and the embargo proved to exist especially unpopular in New England. In March 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with nations bated from Britain and France.^[114]

Near historians consider Jefferson's embargo to have been ineffective and harmful to American interests.^[115] Even the top officials of the Jefferson assistants viewed the embargo as a flawed policy, only they saw it equally preferable to war.^[116] Appleby describes the strategy as Jefferson'due south "to the lowest degree effective policy", and Joseph Ellis calls it "an unadulterated calamity".^[117] Others, yet, portray it as an innovative, nonviolent measure which aided France in its war with Britain while preserving American neutrality.^[118] Jefferson believed that the failure of the embargo was due to selfish traders and merchants showing a lack of "republican virtue." He maintained that, had the embargo been widely observed, it would have avoided state of war in 1812.^[119]

Election of 1804 [edit]

1804 Electoral College vote

Like both of his predecessors, Jefferson ran for a second term. The election of 1804 was the commencement to exist held after the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, which instituted the electric current electoral organization in which carve up balloter votes are cast for the presidency and vice presidency. With Burr having picayune gamble at re-nomination, the party's congressional nominating caucus chose Governor George Clinton of New York every bit Jefferson's running mate. The Federalists nominated Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for president and Rufus Rex for vice president. The Federalists fabricated attacks on Jefferson's declared atheism, his support for democratization, and his thing with Sally Hemings the centerpiece of their entrada, arguing that Jefferson's affair with an enslaved adult female was hypocritical given his standing support for slavery. The Democratic-Republicans enjoyed a marked advantage in party organisation, while the Federalists and their ethos of authorities-past-the-elite were condign increasingly unpopular. Jefferson won every state except for Connecticut and Delaware, taking 162 of the 174 electoral votes.^[120]

Ballot of 1808 [edit]

Secretarial assistant of Country James Madison defeated Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in the 1808 presidential ballot.

Jefferson, who believed that incumbents should not serve indefinitely, followed the two-term tradition precedent established by Washington, and declined to seek a third term. Instead, he endorsed his advisor and friend James Madison for the presidency. Jefferson's assertive strange policy created intra-political party criticism from the tertium quids, led past Randolph.^[121] Randolph and other powerful Autonomous-Republican leaders opposed to Madison, including Samuel Smith and William Duane, rallied around the potential candidacy of James Monroe.^[122] Additionally, Vice President Clinton, who had accepted the vice presidential nomination again, appear his own candidacy for president. Information technology took all of Jefferson's prestige and charm to convince dissident Democratic-Republicans not to commodities from the party out of disdain for Madison.^[123] In the end, Madison headed off the intra-party challenges and defeated Federalist nominee Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, winning 122 of the 176 electoral votes in the 1808 election.^[124]

Historical reputation [edit]

Historian Jon Meacham opines that Jefferson was the most influential figure of the democratic republic in its first half century, succeeded past presidential adherents James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, and Martin Van Buren.^[125] Jefferson'south reputation declined during the Ceremonious State of war due to his support of states' rights. In the late 19th century, his legacy was widely criticized; conservatives felt his democratic philosophy had led to that era'due south populist movement, while Progressives sought a more activist federal authorities than Jefferson's philosophy allowed. Both groups saw Hamilton equally vindicated by history, rather than Jefferson, and President Woodrow Wilson even described Jefferson equally "though a keen human, not a peachy American".^[126]

In the 1930s, Jefferson was held in college esteem; President Franklin D. Roosevelt and New Deal Democrats celebrated his struggles for "the common man" and reclaimed him as their political party's founder. Jefferson became a symbol of American democracy in the incipient Cold State of war, and the 1940s and '50s saw the zenith of his popular reputation.^[127] Following the ceremonious rights motion of the 1950s and '60s, Jefferson'south slaveholding came under new scrutiny, particularly after Dna testing in the late 1990s supported allegations he had a relationship with Emerge Hemings.^[128] Noting the huge output of scholarly books on Jefferson in contempo years, historian Gordon Forest summarizes the raging debates about Jefferson's stature: "Although many historians and others are embarrassed virtually his contradictions and take sought to knock him off the democratic pedestal ... his position, though shaky, still seems secure."^[129]

Polls of historians and political scientists by and large rank Jefferson every bit one of the best presidents, often just outside the top iii. The Siena Research Constitute poll of presidential scholars, begun in 1982, has consistently ranked Jefferson as one of the 5 best U.South. presidents,^[130] and a 2015 Brookings Establishment poll of the American Political Science Association members ranked him as the fifth greatest president.^[131] Though historians tend to think highly of Jefferson'south overall performance as president, a 2006 poll of historians ranked the Embargo Act of 1807 as the seventh-worst mistake made by a sitting president.^[132]

Notes [edit]

a. ^ George Washington, who transferred power to Adams in the previous presidential transition, was nonpartisan

References [edit]

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^ Appleby, 2003, pp. four–5
^ ^a ^b Pruitt, Sarah. "How the Peaceful Transfer of Power Began With John Adams". history.com. History. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
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^ Taylor, Alan (October 13, 2020). "Peaceful transfer of ability | Miller Center". millercenter.org. Miller Centner (University of Virginia). Retrieved May 31, 2021.
^ ^a ^b "Inauguration of President Thomas Jefferson, 2001". Articulation Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. Archived from the original on January 20, 2009. Retrieved January 22, 2009.
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Abraham, Henry Julian (2008). Justices, Presidents, and Senators: A History of the U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to Bush Ii. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN9780742558953.
Ambrose, Stephen Due east. (1996). Undaunted Backbone: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West . Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0684811079.
Appleby, Joyce Oldham (2003). Thomas Jefferson: The American Presidents Series: The tertiary President, 1801–1809. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN978-0805069242.
Bailey, Jeremy D. (2007). Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN978-1139466295.
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Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton . Penguin Press. ISBN978-1594200090.
Cogliano, Francis D (2008). Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN978-0748624997.
Ellis, Joseph J. (2008). American Cosmos: Triumphs and Tragedies in the Founding of the Republic . Random Business firm LLC. ISBN978-0307263698.
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2006). The Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the Shores of Tripoli – The Rising of the US Navy and Marines. Osprey Publishing. ISBN978-1846030307.
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Hayes, Kevin J. (2008). The Route to Monticello: The Life and Mind of Thomas Jefferson . Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195307580.
Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.South. Foreign Relations since 1776 . Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0199743773.
Kaplan, Lawrence S. (1999). Thomas Jefferson: West the Class of Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN978-0842026307.
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Meacham, Jon (2012). Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power . Random Firm LLC. ISBN978-0679645368.
McGraw, Thomas K. (2012). The Founders and Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy. Belknap Press. ISBN9780674066922.
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Rodriguez, Junius (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1576071885.
Scythes, James (2014). Spencer C. Tucker (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812 A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1598841565.
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External links [edit]

Thomas Jefferson at Cyberspace Public Library
More documents from the Library of Congress